AVIATION TECHNOLOGY GRADE 10 COURSEBOOK

1. STRAND 2_WORKSHOP SAFETY

Specific objectives.

At the end of this strand, the learner should be able to:

Ø State safety rules to be observed in an aviation workshop.

Ø Demonstrate correct safety practices while in the workshop.

Ø Apply correct first aid procedures.

Sub-strands

a. General workshop safety rules.

b. Personal safety.

c. Tools and machine safety.

d. First Aid Standard procedures.

A) General Workshop Safety.

Definition of terms:

Safety-this is the state of being safe and free from danger.

Safety precautions-these are rules set for workshop and general working places that would if adhered to, prevent injury and damage to property.

Accident- An unfortunate incident which can lead to loss of life or injury to personnel, and damage to property.

Rules- Standard practices which are set to govern the code of conduct of personnel while at the workshop.

General Workshop Safety Rules.

Ø Do not enter or leave the workshop without permission.

Ø Always obtain permission before using any machine or tool.

Ø Always ensure to wear protective clothing when carrying out any workshop procedure e.g. welding and cutting.

Ø Always ensure all equipment are serviceable before use.

Ø Always use the correct machine for the correct job.

Ø If in doubt do not proceed, ask.

Ø Never carry any workshop tool in your pockets.

Ø Always ensure to use a three pin plug on the sockets.

Ø Ensure to wipe any oil spillage to prevent accidents through slipping.

Ø Always concentrate on whatever you are doing while at the workshop.

Ø Do not eat, drink or even carry food in the workshop.

B) Personal safety.

This entails personal care one should observe in order to ensure their own safety and the safety of others they are working with. There are three enemies to personal safety:

a. Haste- this is when one does things in the workshop hurriedly for the sake of finishing. In hurrying, many things may be compromised leading to accidents.

b. Habit- when we become used to doing one thing commonly, we tend to be overconfident hence may make us do things with little care.

c. Ignorance- a situation where someone tries to perform a task without the necessary skills. This can lead to accidents.

Personal safety can be viewed in two broad perspectives:

a) Behavioral.

b) Dressing code.

a) Behavioral.

Safety is largely dependent upon knowledge and common sense. It solely depends on the attitude of mind rather than a set of rules. The proper attitudes towards safety bare the best insurance. The following are some of the suggestions and behavioural steps that if carefully and correctly followed, they can minimize accidents in the workshop:

Ø Personal cleanliness should always be observed to prevent sickness, care must be taken to wash before eating.

Ø Always remember that the workshop is a place of work, not for horse play. Any tricks or jokes are dangerous to you and your colleagues.

Ø Avoid shouting or unnecessary noise in the workshop this will interfere with the concentration of others.

Ø Look where you are stepping, always walk along the isle and never run.

Ø Never throw items from work bench to another.

Ø Avoid overcrowding around the working area.

Ø Always be a good workshop keeper and always remember the ABC of safety- Always Be Careful.

b) Dressing code

Every person accessing the workshop should:

Ø Keep your hair short and tidy, long hair could be pulled by a rotating part of a machine.

Ø Always ensure to remove all jewelry such as ring, chains and watches.

Ø Always wear special protective clothing when working in welding, forging and foundry areas.

Ø Ensure to always roll up your sleeves, tuck in your shirt, remove your tie and wear an overall which completely covers all loose ends of clothing.

Ø Always ensure to wear goggles or a face shield whenever there are sparks or very bright light experienced during welding procedures.

C) Tools and Machine Safety.

Aviation workshop tools and machines are designed, installed and operated to ensure maximum safety. In order to maintain a high standard of safety, tools and machines should be properly handled, operated and cared for. The following are general rules in regard to specific workshop tools and machines:

Drilling Machine

Ø Always ensure that the machine is firmly mounted to the bench or on the ground to prevent it from falling or sliding during operation.

Ø Before you start the drilling exercise, ensure the work piece is firmly clamped on the machine table.

Ø Always make sure the electrical connection is correct with no naked wires and a three pin plug is used.

Ø Select the right speed for the material being drilled; soft materials are drilled at high speeds while hard materials are drilled at slow speeds.

Ø Always use a coolant while drilling hard material like steels.

Ø Make sure you use the correct drill bit size.

Ø Dress appropriately to protect yourself against hot work pieces, metal chips etc.

Grinding machine.

Ø Always ensure the machine guards are on before you commence the grinding operation.

Ø Ensure the work piece is firmly held as you progress with grinding.

Ø Do not grind from the side of the wheel.

Ø Always operate from the side, not in front of the grinding wheel in case it comes off accidentally.

Ø Make sure you are appropriately dressed; goggles and gloves to protect your eyes.

Ø Always ensure to replace the grinding wheel if it is extremely worn out. s.

Air compressor machine

Ø Always ensure the air compressor is grounded or earthed to prevent excess buildup of charges when it is running.

Ø Ensure always that the electrical connection for the compressor motor is intact and no loose or naked wires.

Ø Always ensure to drain the water that has accumulated in the tank before starting the compressor.

Ø Ensure valves are not leaking.

Ø Ensure the tank pressure gauge and the delivery pipe pressure gauge are functioning properly.

Ø Ensure the room is properly ventilated before starting the machine.

Welding machine.

Ø Ensure you select the correct voltage for the job.

Ø Always ensure the welding machine is on dry ground to minimize the risk of electrocution.

Ø Ensure there is no loose electrical connection, or naked wires.

Ø Always ensure heavy safety boots are worn during welding.

Ø Always use dark eye shield/goggles to protect your eyes from the flare of the electric arc

General safety rules in regards to hand tools

In order to minimize accident and injuries tools should be correctly used and well maintained. The following are some of the general safety rules in regard to specific hand tools:

Hammer

Ø Always check for split or broken handles and loose, worn out or chipped heads.

Ø Head should be firmly secured to the handle. Loose heads can come out of their handles when hitting the work piece and cause serious injuries.

Ø Keep your hands/fingers off the work piece when striking.

Ø Ensure that your workmates are distant enough from the striking range of the hammer blows to avoid injuries’

Hacksaw

Ø Always ensure that the hacksaw blade is properly tightened before using it.

Ø Always apply pressure on the forward stroke and ease the pressure on the back stroke. This is because the cutting stroke is the forward stroke.

Ø Ensure to use the full length of the blade during the cutting stroke.

Ø Ensure the hacksaw blade is placed correctly in the frame by ensuring the teeth face away from you.

Ø Ensure the work piece is firmly held before the cutting procedure commences.

Screw driver

.

Ø The tip of the blade chosen should fit in the slot of the screw head to be turned.

Ø The tip of the screw driver should be reconditioned by grinding when worn out.

Ø The screw driver should not be used as a chisel as this will spoil the handle.

Ø When using the screw driver, the hands should be behind the tip to avoid injury.

Spanners

Ø Always use the correct size of spanner socket when loosening or tightening nuts and bolts.

Ø Never push spanners, always pull as this lessens the possibility of the spanner slipping and causing injuries.

Ø Never increase the length of wrench or spanner with a pipe as this can break the wrench and cause injuries..

Files

Ø Never use a file without a handle because the tang can easily pierce the hand.

Ø Never use a file as a pry bar because it could break easily and cause injuries.

Ø Always ensure to use the whole length of file during the filing exercise.

Ø Ensure the work piece is firmly held before the filing exercise commences.

Ø Ensure the file is cleaned after use and stored in a dry place to prevent rusting.

Pliers

Ø Ensure the joint of the pliers are well lubricated.

Ø Do not use pliers for tightening or loosening bolts or nuts.

Ø Ensure the handles are insulated especially while handling hot objects.

Vernier caliper

Ø The calipers should not be dropped because the measuring jaws will be indented and accuracy may be lost.

Ø Always clean and close the jaws into their position and place the calipers in its case after use.

Ø If the calipers are not to be used for a long time, they should be oiled to prevent rusting.

Ø It is necessary to ensure that all the screws are in position at all times.

Micrometer screw gauge

Ø Micrometers should not be dropped, because they can easily loose the alignment of the screw thread.

Ø Always clean the anvil and spindle faces and oil the screw thread especially when it is not used for some time.

Ø The correct pressures should be maintain to ensure the anvil and spindle faces are not damaged in the course of taking measurements.

Ø They should be stored in their cases after use.

Thread-pitch gauge

Ø Ensure the adjusting knob is properly tightened to secure the blades in the frame

Ø Apply a thin film of oil between the blades to prevent corrosion.

Ø Never drop the thread gauge to minimize damage to the blade teeth.

Ø Always place the tool in its case after use for storage.

FIRST AID

First Aid can be defined as the first and immediate help given to any person suffering from either a minor or serious illness or injury.

First Aider is a person who takes first aid action while taking care to keep everyone involved safe and causing no further harm while doing so.

First aid objectives

Ø To save or preserve life.

Ø To ease pain.

Ø To reduce bleeding.

Ø To prevent infections.

Ø To promote recovery.

The ABC of first aid.

A-This stands for airway. You should ensure that there is no blockage to the victim’s airway.

B-This stands for breathing. You should ensure that the casualty is breathing.

C-This stands for circulation. Check whether the casualty has a pulse.

Basic first aid procedures

A) Burns and scalds

Burns and scalds can be caused by dry heat from actual fire, electric current, friction, acids and alkalis. The general procedure for treating burns are:

q Place the part under running water and do not prick any formed blisters.

q Remove any constrictions like rings, bangles, belts and boots before the part starts to swell.

q Cover the wound with a clean nylon dressing.

q Immobilize a badly burnt part.

q Take the victim to hospital if the case is serious.

B) Cuts

These are breaks in the continuity of the body tissues which allow blood to escape. The breaks may allow germs entry into the body causing infections. It is for this reason that cuts should be treated promptly. Cuts with slight bleeding are treated differently from those with severe bleeding.

Treatment of slight bleeding cuts is as follows:

q Apply pressure on the bleeding point over a sterile dressing.

q Clean with running water.

q Clean with antiseptic to kill any possible germs.

q Dry the skin with cotton swabs.

q Bandage with a pad if necessary or an adhesive dressing.

Treatment of severe bleeding cuts is as follows:

q Apply direct pressure with fingers on the bleeding area over a clean dressing and hold it as long as necessary. If the cut is large, press the sides together firmly but gently.

q Lay the victim down in a suitable and comfortable position.

q Remove any foreign bodies which are visible and can be removed easily.

q Apply sterile dressing to the wound and press firmly.

q Cover the wound with a pad of soft material.

q Retain the pad and dressing in position with a firm bandage.

q Immobilize the injured part.

q Take the victim to the hospital as soon as possible.

Nb: it is possible to have cuts with foreign bodies which are not easily removable. One should not struggle to remove them. The procedures stipulated above should be followed with the foreign body still in the cut.

C) unconsciousness/hypoxia.

This can be caused by many factors; one is by failure of enough oxygen supply to the brain, the other one is by electrocution. All these can cause restricted breathing and blood circulation.

The following is a step by step procedure for handling an unconscious victim.

If the victim is not breathing:

1. Make sure that the air passage is clear by supporting the back of the neck and press the top of the head so that it tilts backward. Remove any foreign matter which might be in the mouth.

2. Press the chin upward for the victim to start breathing.

3. If the victim does not start to breath, begin mouth to mouth artificial respiration as follows:

1. Take a deep breath.
2. Close the victim’s nostrils with the fingers.
3. Bring your mouth close to the victim’s mouth, seal it with your lips and then blow into his mouth until the chest rises.
4. Repeat this until the victim starts breathing naturally.

d) Eye injury.

i) Chemical

Ø Hold the eyelids apart and flush the eyeball with lukewarm water for atleast 15-30 minutes. Be careful not to let runoff water flow into the other eye.

Ø Place a gauze pad or clean cloth over both eyes and secure it with a bandage.

Ø Get to an eye specialist or emergency room immediately.

ii) Cut, scratch or embedded object

Ø Place a gauze pad or cloth over both eyes and secure it with a bandage.

Ø Do not try to remove the embedded object.

Ø Get to an eye specialist or emergency room immediately.

E) Nose Bleeding

Ø Tell the casualty to sit down and tilt his head forward to allow blood to drain from the nostrils.

Ø Ask him to breathe through his nostrils (has a calming effect) & pinch the soft part of nose for up to ten minutes.

Ø Advise the casualty not to speak, cough, spit or sniff as this may disturb blood clot.

Ø After 10 minutes, tell the casualty to release the pressure. If bleeding has not stopped, reapply the pressure for two further periods of 10 minutes.

Ø Once bleeding stops, with his head still leaning forward, clean around his nose with luke warm water. Advise the casualty to rest quietly for a few hours and avoid blowing the nose.

Ø If bleeding stops and then restarts, help casualty reapply pressure.

Ø If nose bleeding is severe and lasts for more than 30 minutes, take casualty to hospital.

F) Fainting

Ø Lie down the casualty to a comfortable position.

Ø Raise their legs, supporting the ankles on your shoulders to improve blood flow to the brain as you watch his face for signs of recovery.

Ø Ensure the casualty has plenty of fresh air. Any bystanders should be asked to clear.

Ø When casualty recovers, give them something to drink.

G) Drowning

Ø Get the casualty out of the liquid without endangering yourself. You can achieve this by holding out a stick, a branch or a rope for him to grab then pulling him out of water to dry land. Alternatively, you can throw him a float.

Ø

2. STRAND 3_THEORY OF FLIGHT 1

Specific Objectives.

At the end of the strand, the learner should be able to:

State briefly the historical development of aviation.
Identify the various types of aircraft
Identify major parts of an aircraft.
Explain basic science concepts
Explain the concepts of flight
Construct simple aircraft MODEL

Sub-STRANDs

a. Introduction

b. Historical highlights.

c. Aircraft Classification

d. Nationality and registration marks.

e. Parts of an Aircraft.

f. Basic science concepts.

g. Bernoulli’s Principle and the aerofoil.

h. Construction of a simple aircraft

Introduction

.The history of aviation extends for more than two thousand years. From the earliest forms of aviation such as kites and gliders, attempts at tower jumping to supersonic and hypersonic flight by powered, heavier than air jets.

Flying has always fascinated man. We also have the Greek mythology where father and son built wings to escape from prison.

On 21^st November 1783 John Francois de Roise and Marquis de Arlandes took off in a Montgolfier balloon over Paris in France. They flew over the city for 23 minutes landing 10 kilometers away.

Historical highlights.

13^th Century

Rodger Bacon, an English philosopher wrote on the possibility of man flying a machine sitting in the middle turning a mechanism to gain motion by artificial wings.

15^thCentury

Leonardo da Vinci wrote notes and made sketches on flying machines.

19^thSeptember 1783

The Montgolfier brothers flew a hot air balloon over Paris city.

1783

Louis Sebastian designed a parachute.

1804

Sir George Cayle wrote the first clear outline of aeronautical principles. He designed a machine powered by a steam engine and operating a propeller. He did not fly it but was able to demonstrate how a curved surface generates lift. He is known as the father of aviation. He used a glider that actually flew over a valley and over villages.

1884

Charles Reynolds and Luther Weber flew the first controllable airship.

1893

Lawrence Hargraves invented a rotating engine and also a box kite.

1903

The Wright Brothers took all the credit for the first heavier than air aircraft.

1907

Paul Cornu, an aircraft mechanic was the first man to fly a helicopter.

1914

The first airline flight was made in Tampa U.S.A

1930

Amy Johnson was the first woman to fly an aircraft from U.K to Australia.

1937

The “nerdeilberg” an airship exploded in America in 6^th May.

1941

The first practical helicopter by Igor Sirkosky, solved the torque problem.

1967

Apollo rocket exploded during a test flight.

1964

Neil Armstrong was the first man to walk on the moon.

1975

The Concorde aircraft (supersonic jetliner) began passenger flight in France.

1981

Creation of the first space shuttle.

1986

The Challenger space shuttle exploded killing all the astronauts on board.

1992

The first human powered was launched.

2003

The Concorde suspended all the commercial flights after an accident over Paris that killed all the passengers and the crew.

Lighter than air aircraft.

These aircraft are also referred to as aerostats. Lighter than air aircraft get lift principally from buoyancy instead of generating lift through the use of aerofoil. Examples of such aircraft include:

i. Hot air balloons.

ii. Airship.

i) Hot air balloon.

A balloon works on the principle that lift force is greater than the weight force. The air inside the balloon is heated by a propane burner making it lighter than the air outside the balloon. To gain height, the air is heated more and to loose height, less gas is burnt. For landing, a valve at the top of the balloon is opened to release the hot gases out slowly.

ii) Airship

It is a balloon which has a power source and is mechanically driven to propel it through the air. An engine and the ability to steer distinguishes an airship from hot air balloons.

Heavier than air aircraft.

These are that generate lift by allowing air to flow over the aerofoil shaped wings. This flow creates a pressure difference between the upper and lower surfaces of the wings and this pressure difference is the lifting force.

Heavier than air aircraft can be categorized as:

a. Mechanically driven.

b. Non- mechanically driven.

a. Mechanically driven

These are aircraft that have an engine as a source of power to propel the forward. They are further classified to as:

- Rotary wing.

- Fixed wing

Rotary wing.

These are aircraft that have aerofoil shaped blades mounted at the top of the airframe that when they are rotated, they generate both lift and thrust.

These aircraft include:

1) Helicopter.

2) Gyroplane

1) Helicopter.

This is a heavier than air aircraft with a power source that drives an overhead rotor shaft to generate both lift and thrust.

2) Gyroplane.

It is a plane with two rotors; one rotor is a propeller used to generate thrust while the other automatic rotor which responds to the rotation by wind to generate lift.

Fixed wings

These are aircraft that have aerofoil shaped wings that generate lift by relative flow of air over them. They include:

1) Amphibians.

2) Sea planes.

3) Land planes.

1) Amphibians.

They are powered aircraft that can land on both water and on land. They have floats for landing on water and wheels to use on land.

2) Sea planes

These are aircraft that land on water only. They use float that are filled up with compressed nitrogen to allow them to float on water.

3) Landplanes.

This category constitutes the largest number of planes. They can only land on designated areas called runways that are tarmacked.

NATIONALITY AND REGISTRATION MARKS

• The nationality mark of an aircraft is a group of two capital letters in roman characters and the registration is a group of these capital letters in roman characters.

• The registration letter are assigned by the Director of Kenya Civil Aviation Authority (KCAA).

• Aircraft nationality marks are assigned by ICAO. The nationality marks given to Kenya by ICAO is 5Y.

• The nationality marks are painted at strategic areas of the aircraft, ensuring clear visibility from a distance.

• The colour of the marks should contrast that of the background and there should be no obstruction.

• The nationality and registration marks are separated with a hyphen.

Position of aircraft nationality and registration markings.

Aircraft nationality and registration markings are usually placed on the following areas:

Ø On the sides of the vertical stabilizer [equidistant, from leading edge and the trailing edge].

Ø On the side of the fuselage between the trailing edges of the wing and the leading edge of the horizontal stabilizer.

Ø Below the left wing or may extend the whole length of the wing [span]

Ø On helicopters, the markings can be placed on both sides of the tail boom and sometimes on the engine nacelles.

Ø On airships the markings are placed on both sides of the hull.

Ø On hot air balloons, the markings are placed on two sides diametrically opposite.

Parts of an aircraft

An aircraft consists of five major parts namely:

i. Fuselage

ii. Undercarriage [landing gear]

iii. Main planes [wings]

iv. Power plants [engines]

v. Empennage [tail section]

Fuselage

This is the central part of the aircraft and has the following functions:

v It provides attachment for other aircraft parts e.g Wings, Undercarriage etc.

v In single engine aircrafts, it holds the power plant.

v It has a cabin which provides the space for carrying cargo and passengers.

v It protects the passengers from the harsh atmospheric conditions experienced during flight.

v It has a cockpit which holds all the flight operation controls, and housing the flight crew.

v It provides a passage for the aircraft control cables and wiring.

Undercarriages

These are structures that are located beneath the fuselage structure, and can also be referred to as landing gears. Their functions include the following:

v To support the aircraft during ground operations like taxing, parking and towing.

v It has a wheel assembly which allow ground movement of the aircraft before take-off and after landing.

v It has brakes which assist in slowing the aircraft after touch down.

v It acts as a shock absorber during landing.

v It has a steering mechanism to enable the aircraft maneuver while on the ground.

v It provides enough ground clearance for the engines and propellers.

Main planes

They are also known as wings, and are usually in a pair. One is attached to the right side of the fuselage, while the other is attached to the left side of the fuselage. The functions of the main plane include the following:

v To generate the lift force required to support the aircraft in flight.

v To provide the space for storing fuel.

v To provide the attachment for the engines in multi engine aircrafts.

v To provide the stowage area [wheel well] for undercarriages.

v To hold weapons especially in military aircrafts.

v To provide hinge surface for flight control surfaces like Flaps, Ailerons, and Spoilers etc.

Power plant

It is also known as engines, and can be wing mounted or fuselage mounted. The function of the engine include:

v To generate thrust force required to move an aircraft forward during flight.

v To generate electricity for cabin lighting and powering of aircraft systems through engine driven generators.

v To provide bleed air to be used for cabin pressurization and air conditioning, de-icing and anti-icing, and also for running gyroscopic instruments.

v To provide a means of slowing the aircraft after touchdown through thrust reversers.

v It provides a means of turning an aircraft on the ground through power differential.

Empennage

This is the tail section of the aircraft and consists of fixed surfaces like the Fin, Tail plane and the Tail cone, and movable surfaces like the rudder and elevators.

The empennage has the following functions:

v It has a fin/vertical stabilizer which assist in stabilizing the aircraft vertically.

v It has a tail plane/horizontal stabilizer to assist in stabilizing the aircraft horizontally.

v It has a tail cone which encloses the rear end of the fuselage, thus streamlining it.

v It houses the auxiliary power unit (APU) in large airplanes.

v It anchors the power plant in some aircraft models

bAsic science concepts

Science Concepts refers to a methodology of using tools for recognizing, representing and manipulating various knowledge domains. The following are the basic science concepts that are applicable in Theory of Flight:

Mass

• Mass (M) is the quantity of matter in an object.

• The mass of an object is not dependent on gravity and is therefore different but relates to the weight of an object.

• The thrust produced by an aircraft propeller or jet engine is dependent on the mass flow of air through the engine.

• The SI Unit of mass is Kilogram (Kg)/ Pounds (Lb.).

• Other units for mass are:- grams(g) - milligrams(mg) - Tonnes(t)

• Mass = Density ×Volume

Weight

• The weight of an object is the force with which the object is attracted to the Centre of the earth.

• It is a product of the mass of the object and acceleration due to gravity (g).

• The SI Unit for weight is Newton (N). 1 Newton is the force required to give a body of 1 Kilogram an acceleration of 1m/s.

• Other units for weight are Kilo newton(KN)

• Weight=Mass×Gravitational Acceleration.

Force

• This is a pull or a push of an object.

• The SI unit of force is Newton (N).

Force = Pressure × Area

There are four principle forces that act on an aircraft during flight, these are:-

a. Weight - It is a force that acts downwards from the center of gravity and tends to pull the aircraft towards the center of the earth.

b. Lift - It is a force that acts upwards from the wing center of pressure and tends to oppose or overcome weight.

c. Drag - It is the force that acts backwards from the center of gravity and resists the aircraft movement through the air.

d. Thrust - It is a force that acts forward from the engine and propels the aircraft forward.

Energy

• Energy is the ability of a system to do work.

• It can also be defined as the capacity of a physical system to do work.

• The SI unit of energy is Joules (J).

• Energy can be classified into two forms:-

i) Potential Energy (P.E)

ii) Kinetic Energy (K.E)

Potential energy: It is a form of energy possessed by a body because of its configuration or its position. For example;

a) An object raised at height-(position)

b) A tightly wound spring-(condition)

c) A gas stored in a cylinder-(condition)

Kinetic energy: It is a form of energy possessed by a body due its motion. For example

a) When a hammer is raised to hit a nail.

b) When water is released to rotate the turbines to produce hydroelectric power.

c) When wind drives turbines to drive electricity.

d) When a bullet is shot by a gun.

Kinetic energy= (1/2) ×Mv²

LAWS OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY

• It states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed, but can be transformed from one form to another.

• This means that the total amount of energy in the universe is constant.

Various forms of energy include: -Heat Energy. - Chemical Energy. - Nuclear Energy. - Solar Energy. - Mechanical Energy. etc.

Momentum

• Momentum refers to the quantity of motion that an object has.

• It can also be define as the product of mass and velocity of an object.

• The SI Unit for momentum is Kg.m/s

• Momentum = Mass × Velocity

Angular momentum is the tendency of a rotating body to continue spinning about an axis

Pressure

• This is the force acting perpendicularly per unit area.

• The SI Unit for pressure is N/m²

Pressure = Force÷Area

• Other units for pressure are:- a) Atmosphere (Atm.) b) Millibars (mb) c) Inches of Mercury (in Hg) d) Pounds per Square Inch (Psi) e) Millimeters of Mercury (mm Hg)

Density

• It refers to the mass per unit volume of an object.

• The SI Unit for density is Kg/m³or g/cm³

Density = Mass÷Volume

Speed

• This is the rate of change of distance with time.

• Speed can also be defined as how fast or slow an object moves.

• Speed is a vector quantity.

• The SI Unit for speed is Km/h

Speed = Distance÷Time

Velocity

• This is the rate of change of displacement with time.

• Velocity is a vector quantity. i.e. It has both direction and magnitude.

• The SI Unit for velocity is m/s

Velocity = Displacement÷Time

Acceleration

• This is the rate of change of velocity with time. It is a scalar quantity.

• The SI Unit for acceleration is m/s²

Acceleration = Change in Velocity÷Time

Centre of gravity

• This is a point in an object from where all its mass tends to act from.

• It is the point about which all gravitational moments adds up to zero.

• In an aircraft, it is assumed to be the point where the three principle axes meet.

Moments

• This is the turning effect of a force.

• It can also be defined as a tendency of a body to rotate.

• This is the product of force and perpendicular distance, separating the point of application of the force and the fulcrum/pivot.

• The SI unit of moments is Nm.

Moment= Force × Perpendicular distance

• Aircraft primary controls are placed at the furthest distance from the center of gravity to give them a long moment arm so that just a small force is able to control them.

Force and motion

Effects of force

ü Can make a stationary object move.

ü Can change the shape of an object.

ü Can change the direction of an object.

ü Can stop a body in motion.

• The concept of force and motion is well explained in Newton’s Laws of Motion as follows:

Newton’s -First law of Motion

· It states that body in the state or in uniform linear motion will continue in that state unless acted upon by external forces.

This law is also referred to as the law of inertia.

Inertia: - The tendency of a body to remain in a state of rest or uniform motion in a straight line for example

If a car in motion stops instantly, the passengers tend to jerk forward as their masses resist stoppage.

Newton’s -Second law of motion

• This law states that the acceleration of a body is directly proportional to the force causing it and inversely proportional to its mass that is, a large mass requires a huge force to accelerate it or to stop it.

Acceleration= Force÷Mass

Newton’s -Third law of motion

• This law states that for every action there is an equal and opposite reaction force. For example, for an aircraft to move forward, a propeller or a jet engine pushes large mass of air backwards and in turn a reactive force is generated which pushes the aircraft forward.

Bernoulli's Principle And the aerofoil

Bernoulli's Principle

Daniel Bernoulli, a Swiss scientist of 18^th Century, discovered that if a fluid is flowing through a pipe with a restriction (narrow point) when it approaches this point, its velocity increases while its pressure decreases.

Bernoulli's Principle states that; In a steady, non-viscous and incompressible fluid in motion, the total energy of a fluid particle is constant at all points on its path.

Study of fluid flow in a closed tube

• Suppose a stream of water is flowing through a venturi tube as shown below:

• The fluid flow at the tube inlet has a certain velocity and static pressure. Since the fluid flow is enclosed within the tube the mass flow along the tube remains constant.

• As the fluid flow approaches the constriction at the center of the tube, the velocity increases as the pressure decreases.

• Towards the venture tube outlet the velocity of the fluid decreases and static pressure increases. The total energy of the air stream remains constant.

The Aerofoil

Aircraft wings and helicopter rotors are examples of aerofoil. When an aerofoil is moved through the air, it generates both lift and drag.

LIFT GENERATION

• As the airflow approaches the leading edge of the wing, it separates into two flows

• The first airflow flows above the upper surface of the wing. While the second flows below the lower surface of the wing which is flat or has a very small curvature.

• Due to the upper surface camber, the air molecules travelling above the wing has a longer distance to cover as compared to the one travelling below yet both flows must meet at the trailing edge at the same time.

• This makes the airflow above, which has a longer distance to cover to move faster than the airflow below the aerofoil.

• According to Bernoulli's principle, the higher velocity above the aerofoil creates a region of low pressure while the slow airflow below the aerofoil creates a region of high pressure.

• This pressure difference creates a differential force called lift.

3. STRAND 4_METEOROLOGY 1

SPECIFIC OBJECTIVES.

• At the end of this strand, the learner should be able to:

a) Differentiate between International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) and Prevailing conditions.

b) Describe the characteristics of atmospheric layers.

c) Identify, read and interpret weather instruments.

Sub-STRANDS

v Introduction

v Atmospheric elements.

v Properties of the atmosphere.

v Atmospheric layers.

v International standard atmosphere (ISA) & prevailing conditions.

v Weather instruments

INTRODUCTION

• Meteorology refers to a branch of science concerned with the processes and facts of the atmosphere, including weather and climate.

• To enable safe and comfortable flights we must understand the behaviour of the atmosphere.

• The earth is wrapped by a protective blanket known as the atmosphere hence, Atmosphere is the gaseous envelope that surrounds the earth and rest upon it.

• The basic unit of each gas is a molecule, when three atoms of a molecule combine they form the ozone.

• The highest concentration of ozone is found in a 25km thick layer, 16-40km from the earth surface.

• The ozone layer absorbs harmful ultra-violet rays, thereby protecting the earth against its dangerous effects.

ATMOSPHERIC ELEMENTS

Parameters of air (pressure, density, temperature) vary considerably both in weight and geographic condition around the world.

In the lowest 65-80 km of the atmosphere, the relative proportion of each gas in the air mixture is almost constant.

Composition of the atmosphere

a)Nitrogen - 78%

b) Oxygen - 21%

c) Carbon (IV) oxide - 0.03%

d) Inert gases - 0.97%

In the atmosphere, we also have impurities due to the presence of dust, smoke and waste industrial gases.

PROPERTIES OF THE ATMOSPHERE

Temperature

Atmospheric Temperature Lapse rate

Temperature lapse rate can be defined as the changes in temperature with change in altitude.

There are three types of temperature lapse rate;

a) Positive Lapse Rate – This is where temperature decreases with increase in height/altitude.

a) Neutral Lapse Rate – This is where temperature remains constant with increase in height. The atmospheric layer with this type of lapse rate is referred to as Isothermal Layer.

c) Negative Lapse Rate – This is where the temperature increases with increase in height. The atmospheric layer with this type of lapse rate is referred to as Inversion Layer

Density

• Density is mass per unit volume of a substance hence, air density is the mass of air per a given volume.

• Density decreases with an increase in altitude within the atmosphere.

• Air density at sea level is assumed to be 1.225 kg/M^2.

Pressure

• Pressure is the mass per unit area.

• A column on air exerts pressure on the earth’s surface which decreases as the altitude increases.

• Pressure at sea level is assumed to be 1013.25mb or 101.3KN/M², 760mmHg, 29.92inHg.

Wind

• Troposphere contains winds called jet streams.

• The strongest winds are encountered at the height of about 30,000 and above of winds moving from west to east at a speed of 150-350 miles per hour (mph).

Atmospheric layers

• The atmosphere is divided into four main layers namely:-

a) Troposphere – Ranges from 0 to 11Km, where we find the tropopause.

b) Stratosphere – Ranges from 11Km to 48Km, where we find the stratopause.

c) Mesosphere – Ranges from 48Km to 80Km, where we find the mesopause.

d) Thermosphere – Ranges from 80Km and above

A typical model showing THE ATMOSPHERic LAYERS

Troposphere

• This is the lowest layer of the atmosphere and closest to the earth‘s surface with an altitude of 11Km (36,000ft) from the sea level.

• It is a layer with positive lapse rate where temperature decreases with increase in altitude at a rate of 6.5˚C per Km or 1.98˚C per 1000ft.

• It is a layer with most weather elements for example, cloud formation and precipitation.

• It contains 78% of all gases, dust and water vapour.

• There is a decrease in pressure with rise in altitude.

• There is a decrease in air density with rise in altitude.

• Wind velocity increases with increase in altitude.

• It is the only layer that supports life.

• It is separated from Stratosphere by a layer of discontinuity called tropopause.

Stratosphere

• The altitude extends from 11km to 48km (56,000 ft-157,000ft).

• This is the second layer of the atmosphere extending above the tropopause

• It has an isothermal layer where temperature remains constant at -57°c from 11-15 km, and an inversion layer above this point, where the temperature increases up to 48 km.

• It contains the strongest winds called jet steams which are tubes of high speed winds moving from east to west. Airplanes take advantage of this wind to gain extra speed.

• Clouds are usually rear in this layer.

• This layer contains the ozone layer which keeps most of the infra- red radiation from the sun from reaching the earth’s surface, thus making the temperatures to rise in this layer.

Stratosphere is divided in to two layers:

a) Lower stratosphere

b) Upper stratosphere

a) Lower Stratosphere

• It extends from 36,000 feet to 82,000 feet (11-25km).

• The temperature in this region is almost constant at -57°c.

b) Upper Stratosphere

• It extends from 82,000 feet TO 157,000 feet (25-48 km).

• Temperature increases from -57°c to -2.5°c.

• At the end, there is a boundary layer called the stratopause.

3) Mesosphere

• It extends from 157,000 ft. to 262,000 ft.(48-80 km)

• This is the third layer of the atmosphere extending above the earth.

• The temperature falls rapidly hence it is the coldest temperature zone with an average temperature of -92°C

• At the top of mesosphere is the upper boundary layer called mesopause.

• It experiences very high velocities with a speed of about 300 km/h.

4) Thermosphere

• It extends from 262,000-1,312,355 ft. (80-400km).

• It’s the 4^th layer extending from the mesosphere.

• There is no distinct temperature boundary to the top of this layer.

• The temperature increases rapidly due to the absorption of the solar energy.

• This zone is sometimes taken to include the ionosphere and exosphere.

• The ionosphere has the ability to reflect radio waves.

INTERNATIONAL STANDARD ATMOSPHERE (I.S.A) & PREVAILING CONDITIONS

• Prevailing Conditions refers to the atmospheric conditions that comprise of the existing state of the atmosphere in terms of temperature, wind and clouds.

• International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) is an atmospheric model of how the pressure, temperature, density &viscosity of the earth´s atmosphere changes over a wide range of altitude.

• It has been established to provide a common reference for temperature and pressure and consist of tables of various altitude.

• The international Standard Organization (ISO) published the ISA as an international standard.

• At sea level, the International standard atmosphere(ISA) gives values as follows:-

• Temperature=15 °C /288k

• Pressure=1013.25mb/760mmHg/29.92inHg/14.7psi/101.3kNm^-2

• Air Density=1.225kgm^-3

• Speed of sound=340ms^-2

• Acceleration due to Gravity=9.81ms^-2

• I.S.A model divides the atmosphere in to linear temperature distribution.

Weather instruments

Windsock

• A windsock is an instrument used to measure the strength and direction of wind

• It is commonly found in airports. It is used to aid the air traffic controllers in selecting the runway depending on the wind direction.

Windvane

• It’s used for measuring wind direction.

• The pointer faces the wind while the tail faces the direction the wind is blowing to.

• It consist of a horizontally rotating arm with a pointer pivoted on the vertical shaft

Rain gauge

• The measurement of rainfall is done by a rain gauge when it rains, water from direct raindrops collects into the jar through the funnel.

Anemometer

• The speed of wind is measured using an anemometer in kmh or in nautical miles. When the wind blows, the cups rotate.

• The stronger the wind, the faster the rotation.

Thermometer

This is an instrument used to measure air temperature

Effects of weather to an aircraft in flight

Turbulence

– This is caused by non-uniform wind flow. It leads to bumpy, rough and uncomfortable flight.

Factors leading to Turbulence

• Convectional vertical currents.

• Friction – The interaction of air with another surface i.e. with the ground or an obstruction and can cause mechanical turbulence.

• Wind Shear – Change in wind direction and speed over a short period.

• Aircraft cause wake turbulence behind their wings. This is particularly dangerous to other aircrafts during take-off and landing.

Precautions taken to avoid effects of turbulence on aircraft

• Aircraft must be properly separated.

• Aircraft must not fly above the other aircraft path, since vortices sink downwards.

• Avoid flying over areas of uneven terrains.

• Check weather forecast before planning a flight.

Keep heading and altitude change to minimum

2. Fog

• This reduces visibility.

• Very low visibility may lead to postponing of landings, taking off and other airport operations.

• Aircrafts may also be directed to other airports.

3. Rain

Rain affects the aircraft’s braking action during landing as the runway becomes slippery. This may limit take-off and landing weight

4. Temperatures

• The temperature is important in view of engine performance. High temperatures can lead to reduction in air density, which has a direct negative effect on engine performance. This can also lead to reduction of take-off weight.

Crosswinds

• Crosswinds usually hit the aircraft from the sides during landing and taking off. This gives the aircraft unnecessary rolling which may be hazardous. The direction of wind is used in selecting runways.

6. Thunderstorm Hazards

• Flight through thunderstorms result to such hazards like hail, icing, lightning strikes and severe air turbulence.

• Since most low flying aircraft may not be equipped with weather radar, pilots must rely and have reliable and current weather data from the meteorological department.

• High wind speeds and severe down bursts are associated with thunder clouds.

• When a thunderstorm occurs near an airport, various operations like landing and takeoff and even refueling are suspended.

Effects of high altitude flights on aircraft

• Low temperatures at very high altitudes can cause aircraft icing which can lead to:-

a) Increase in drag hence loss of lift when it accumulates on the aircraft surface.

b) Decrease in propeller efficiency.

c) Blockage of the pitot heads and static vents hence introducing errors in pitot-static Instruments.

d) May affect radio antenna bringing the possibility of communication failure.

e) Carburation icing hence reduce engine efficiency.

Advantages of high altitude flight

HUMAN:-

a) Reduced noise levels.

b) Comfort i.e. less air bumps/ turbulence.

AIRCRAFT:-

a) Economical in fuel consumption-less drag is experienced.

b) Less buffeting/vibrations.

c) Reduced incidents of lightning strikes.

d) Low atmospheric pollution

Effects of high altitude flight on human beings

• Freezing

• Reduced humidity causes sore throat and cracking of skin.

• Anoxia which is caused by absence of oxygen supply to an organ or a tissue.

• Hypoxia which is caused by lack of sufficient oxygen in the brain, leading to blurred vision, impaired judgement and thinking, etc.

• Decompression sickness and vapour locks in the blood streams causing chest pains and sickness in breathing.

• The aircraft must be made from heavy structures to withstand high pressure differential hence more expensive.

4. STRAND 1_OCCUPATIONAL AND CAREER INFORMATION

Specific objectives

At the end of this strand, the learner should have acquired information on:

a) Range of occupational opportunities in the aviation field.

b) Entry qualifications for occupations in the aviation field.

c) Entry requirements for further training in the aviation field.

Sub-strands

a) Flight Crew careers.

b) Engineering careers.

c) Cabin crew careers.

d) Air traffic controllers.

e) Ground handling personnel.

Introduction

Definition of Aviation Technology

-It refers to the study of designing, manufacturing, maintaining and flying of an aircraft.

Roles of aviation to the Kenyan economy

Ø Transportation of passengers, mails and freight.

Ø Security purposes e.g. internal security forces and the military.

Ø Research by different organizations e.g. meteorological department, wildlife services.

Ø Aerial photography-mapping and surveying.

Ø Evacuation and medical services .i.e. In flooded areas

Ø Creation of employment opportunities e.g. Pilot, Flight dispatchers etc.

Ø Agricultural activities e.g. spraying.

Flight crew careers.

i) Pilot/captain/Pilot in command(PIC)

ii) Co-pilot/first officer.

iii) Flight engineer.

iv) Navigator.

Pilot

He/she seats at the port (left) side of the cockpit. Their roles include:

Ø Final decision maker during flight.

Ø In charge of take-off and landing.

Ø Carries out emergency drill in emergency situations.

Ø In charge of communication with the control tower.

Ø Ensures that necessary checks are done before take-off, during and after landing.

First officer

He acts as the co-pilot and seats at the right side (star board) of the flight deck. Their roles include:

u Assists the pilot(deputizes)

u Carries out the check list i.e takeoff check list, climb check list, cruise check list, approach checklist and landing checklist.

u Takes over command in case the pilot is incapacitated.

u Carries the petty cash.

u Monitors the working of navigational computers, communication radios and engine instruments.

Qualifications for piloting

Physical and health qualifications:

u One must be in an excellent state of health i.e. not asthmatic, high blood pressure etc.

u Must have good hearing and eye sight as mostly radio communication and instrument viewing is mandatory.

u Should have a minimum age of 17 years

Academic qualifications:

u Must have very good performance in Mathematics, Physics, English and Geography with at least C+ and above.

u Should have an aggregate grade of C+ and above.

Pilot license categories

1. Student Pilot License (SPL)

This is the license given to a student pilot.

2. Private Pilot License (PPL)

This the most basic license. Student must successfully complete a minimum of 45 flying hours in addition to ground school. This license does not permit one to fly for commercial purposes.

3. Commercial Pilot License (CPL)

To acquire this category of license, the pilot must have a PPL and a flight experience of not less than 200 flight hours. Must also have instrument rating. With this license, the pilot can fly for pay.4 Airline Transport Pilot License (ATPL)

This is the highest level of license that a pilot can have. The pilot should already have a CPL before obtaining the ATPL. A pilot must have a flight experience of not less than 1500 hours including 200 hours as pilot in command (PIC)

Flight engineer

The flight engineer is carried on long range flights to supervise the working of the engines, instruments, electricals and mechanical systems and ensuring they function properly. Other roles may include:

Ø Advices the pilot in case of flight emergencies.

Ø He enters/fills the technical logbook e.g. oil uplifts, aircraft defects, position of the aircraft c.o.g, accumulated flight hours, flight number etc.

Ø Starts the engines before take-off.

Ø Responsible for supervising the aircraft’s speed and altitude.

Qualifications for a flight engineer:

Ø Be at least 18 years of age.

Ø Possess a valid Class 1 Medical Certificate.

Ø At least 3 years of practical experience in aircraft maintenance and at least 5 hours of flight training in the duties of a flight engineer.

Ø Possess a degree in aeronautical engineering from a college or engineering school acceptable by KCAA.

Navigator

He/she is a member of the flight crew and seats behind the captain in the flight deck. Their roles include:

Ø Monitors aircraft position at all times.

Ø Advices the captain on estimated time to destination and route.

Ø In charge of maintaining aeronautical charts and publications, navigational equipment, and communications.

Ø Assists in flight planning

Aircraft engineering careers.

Aircraft engineering can be categorized into two main groups namely:

1. Aeronautical engineering.

b. Maintenance engineering

a) Aeronautical engineering/aerospace engineering.

It involves designing and testing of aircraft, and aircraft systems.

b) Aircraft maintenance engineering.

This requires a wide variety of skilled engineers who ensure the aircraft is airworthy through timely scheduled and unscheduled checks, servicing and system overhaul. It can be categorized into three:

i. Airframe maintenance engineer.

ii. Power plant maintenance engineer.

iii. Avionics engineer.

i. Airframe maintenance engineer.

They are responsible for the maintenance of the aircraft body and the fuselage. They should have at least a diploma level training in aeronautical engineering and a license from KCAA.

ii. Power plant maintenance engineer.

They are responsible for day to day maintenance of the aircraft engines and overhaul of engine components. They should have at least a diploma level training in aeronautical engineering and a license from KCAA.

iii. Avionics engineer.

Responsible for the maintenance of electrical and electronic systems, and instruments of the aircraft. They should have at least a diploma level training in aeronautical engineering and a license from KCAA.

Cabin crew careers

These careers involve taking care of passengers and ensuring their comfortability while the aircraft is in flight. The personnel in these careers include:

i) Hostesses and stewards.

ii) Purser.

i) Hostesses and stewards.

These are ladies and gentlemen who work in the passenger aircraft cabin and play the following roles:

Ø Serve food and drinks to passengers during flight.

Ø Brief passengers on flight safety and actions to take in case of an emergency.

Ø Assist in giving first aid in case of unfortunate incidents during flight.

Ø They take care of the passenger’s needs and ensure they are comfortable throughout the flight.

Ø
They report any serious concerns in the cabin to the pilot for necessary action.

ii) Purser

He/she is the chief cabin crew member and has the following responsibilities:

Ø He/she ensures that the services provided to the passengers is of the highest standard.

Ø He/she keeps the aircraft’s flight accounts records.

Ø In charge of entertainment and ensures that the passengers are comfortable in the aircraft during flight.

Ø He/she orders for supplies before flight.

Ø He/she is in charge of all operations and logistics in the cabin during flight.

Ø He/she gives instructions to the cabin attendants before and during flight.

Air traffic control

These are personnel located at the control tower of every airport with a need to control the flow of aircraft. They can be put into two categories:

a) Air traffic controllers.

b) Ground controllers.

a) Air traffic controller.

Ø Air traffic controller gives instructions to the pilot on when to land and take-off. In case the aircraft needing to take off or land are many, he/she puts them on a waiting list.

Ø Ensures that aircraft in the controlled airspace are safely separated i.e. a vertical separation of 1000 feet is the standard.

Ø Ensures that the airport beacon transmitter and radar equipment are functioning properly.

Ø Responsible for collecting landing and take-off fees in the airport.

Ø Keep in constant communication with the pilot to update him on weather and direction/position of the aircraft.

Ø Advices the pilot on the action to be taken during an emergency in flight.

b) Ground Controllers.

These are airport personnel who are located at the airport control tower.

They are mostly concerned with aircraft that is on the ground especially at the ramp and on the taxiways, after landing or before take-off. These personnel have the following responsibilities:

Ø Guide the aircraft from the runway to the terminal gate.

Ø They ensure the aircraft remain on their taxiways and away from active runways to avoid ground collisions.

Ø They ensure the airports stay operational by keeping the aircraft moving within the airport to avoid delay.

Ø They clear the runway off any vehicles and personnel during take-off and landing

Ø They inform the pilot about the weather and are also responsible for adjusting runway lights incase visibility is poor.

Ø They call fire department or medical services in case of a fire emergency.

Ø They give permission for engine startup, pushback procedures, refueling and other ramp activities.

Ø They allocate terminal gates to the arriving aircrafts.

Ground handling

These are personnel concerned with the aircraft once it enters the terminal area either for passengers to disembark, off-loading of goods, refueling, etc.

The personnel include:

a) Marshallers.

b) Flight dispatchers.

c) Security officers.

a) MARSHALLER.

Ø This personnel is responsible for directing the pilot using standard hand signals during ground operations like engine start up prior to take-off, taxiing, parking etc. He has to dress up in easily identifiable clothing for him to be spotted easily. At night they use flash lights.

b) Flight dispatcher.

A flight dispatcher is positioned in the operations department of an airline and has the following responsibilities:

Ø Helps in scheduling flights.

Ø Ensures all civil aviation regulations are adhered to.

Ø Prepares flight plans.

Ø Supplies meteorological reports.

Ø Briefs the flight crew members before the flight commences.

Ø Provides flight and fuel information.

c) SECURITY OFFICERS.

These are Kenya Airports Authority employees who are assigned the roles of ensuring overall security of aircraft, passengers and other personnel. They carry out passenger, baggage and cargo screening to ensure that no illegal drugs and firearms enter or leave through the customs.

In case of any irregularities or non-compliance, they call the police.

AVIATION ORGANIZATIONS

Each country is responsible for regulating aviation operations for any aircraft within its airspace. Nevertheless, there are some regulations that govern international flights to ensure equitable treatment for all civil airline operators.

Aviation organizations hence can be categorized as either:

a) Local;

i) Kenya Airports Authority (KAA)

ii) Kenya Civil Aviation Authority (KCAA)

b) International;

i) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

Ii) International Air Transport Association (IATA

I) Kenya Airports Authority (KAA)

This organization has the following responsibilities;

Ø It is responsible for the construction of civil airports and their maintenance.

Ø They approve construction and establishment of private airstrips.

Ø Provide security within the airport.

Ø They provide rescue and firefighting equipment at the airport.

Ø They charge airlines for the usage of the airport facilities.

Ø They maintain runways, taxiways and aprons.

ii) Kenya Civil Aviation Authority (KCAA)

KCAA is responsible for;

Ø Approval of aviation organizations based on their liquidity.

Ø Licensing of aviation personnel e.g pilots, maintenance engineers, air traffic controllers etc.

Ø Licensing of aircraft based on their airworthiness conditions.

Ø In charge of aircraft accident and incidents investigations.

Ø Calibrate airport beacons.

INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATIONS

i) International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO)

This organization plays the following roles;

Ø Ensures safe and orderly growth of international civil aviation world over.

Ø Negotiates for freedoms of air e.g freedom to overfly a foreign state, freedom to land in a foreign state on emergency situations etc.

Ø Promote safety of flight in the international airspace.

Ø Encourage the art of aircraft design and operation for peaceful purposes.

Ø Adopted the phonetic alphabets for use in civil aviation. These alphabets are as follows:

A- Alpha B-Bravo C-Charlie D-Delta E-Echo F-Foxtrot G-Golf H-Hotel I- India J- Juliet K-Kilo L-Lima M-Mike N-Novembre O- Oscar P-Papa Q- Quebec R-Romeo S-Sierra T-Tango U-Uniform V-Victor W-Whiskey X- X-Ray

Y- Yankee Z- Zulu

ii) International Air Transport Association (IATA)

Ø Meet the needs of people around the world by ensuring a safe, regular, efficient and economical air transport.

Ø Regulating air transport charges to prevent unnecessary competitions among airlines.

Ø Training, examining and issuing certificates after qualification to cabin crew members and other aviation related hospitality personnel.

Site:	Its All About Aviation
Course:	Its All About Aviation
Book:	AVIATION TECHNOLOGY GRADE 10 COURSEBOOK

AVIATION TECHNOLOGY GRADE 10 COURSEBOOK

Description

Table of contents

1. STRAND 2_WORKSHOP SAFETY

2. STRAND 3_THEORY OF FLIGHT 1

3. STRAND 4_METEOROLOGY 1

4. STRAND 1_OCCUPATIONAL AND CAREER INFORMATION

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Date:	Thursday, 14 May 2026, 8:16 PM